About Kazakhstan

The climate of Kazakhstan is extremely continental, with hot summers and cold winters. Temperatures vary immensely by region, with the most dramatic differences between the deserts and mountains. The southern regions have milder winters and hotter summers than the northern and central regions. The steppes experience especially harsh winters due to strong, cold winds from the north. Depending on the region, the average daily temperature in January ranges from -19Р’В° to -4Р’В° C (-2Р’В° to 25Р’В° F), while in July it ranges from 19Р’В° to 26Р’В° C (66Р’В° to 79Р’В° F). Extreme summer temperatures can reach 45Р’В° C (113Р’В° F), and extreme winter temperatures can fall below -45Р’В° C (-49Р’В° F). Annual precipitation levels are generally low, ranging from less than 100 mm (4 in) in the deserts to between 250 and 350 mm (10 and 14 in) on the steppes, where summer thunderstorms often produce flash floods. During winter, most of the country is covered in snow. In the mountains, where peaks are perpetually snow-capped, precipitation averages 1,500 mm (60 in) per year.

Environmental Issues

The environment of Kazakhstan began to suffer serious harm during the Soviet period. The country now faces an urgent need to address the Soviet legacy of ecological mismanagement.

Between 1949 and 1991 the Soviet government conducted about 70 percent of all of its nuclear testing in Kazakhstan, mostly in the northeastern area near the city of Semipalatinsk (now Semey). Nearly 500 nuclear explosions occurred both above and below ground near Semipalatinsk, while more than 40 nuclear detonations occurred at other testing grounds in western Kazakhstan and in the Qyzylqum desert. More than 1 million of Kazakhstan’s inhabitants were exposed to dangerous levels of radiation because the Soviet government did not evacuate or even warn nearby populations. In the late 1980s Kazakhs held large demonstrations calling for an end to the nuclear testing, and in 1991 the government of Kazakhstan put a stop to the practice. However, the testing grounds, and perhaps even underground aquifers (water-bearing layers of rock, sand, or gravel), remain highly contaminated. The Nevada-Semipalatinsk Organization, which led the campaign against nuclear testing during the 1980s, has turned its attention to teaching residents of polluted areas how to avoid nuclear contamination. One of every three children born in the Semipalatinsk region has mental or physical defects, and about half the population suffers from immune system deficiencies.

Another ecological disaster area in Kazakhstan is the Aral Sea, which is split roughly in half between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan. The Aral Sea has shrunk to less than half its former size since the early 1960s, when the Soviet government initiated a drive to increase cotton yields in the arid lands of Central Asia. Excessive irrigation substantially decreased inflow to the Aral, and the Aral’s shoreline began to recede rapidly. This has caused severe environmental problems in the Aral Sea basin, including the destruction of wildlife habitat as a result of desertification (a process whereby previously habitable or arable land becomes desert). The Aral Sea crisis is also associated with a number of health problems, including respiratory infections and parasitic diseases. The five Central Asian states have created a fund to address the Aral Sea crisis; each donates a portion of national income to the fund annually.

Kazakhstan also faces the problem of urban pollution, particularly in its eastern cities, which receive harmful emissions from lead and zinc smelters, a uranium-processing mill, and other industries. In recent years, environmental activist groups in Kazakhstan have begun lobbying for tighter emission controls. Other environmental issues in Kazakhstan include soil pollution from the overuse of pesticides in agriculture and the increasingly polluted waters of the Caspian Sea.

THE PEOPLE OF KAZAKHSTAN

In 2003 Kazakhstan had an estimated population of 16,763,795, giving it an average population density of 6 persons per sq km (16 per sq mi). Some 56 percent of the population lives in urban areas, making Kazakhstan the most urbanized of the Central Asian republics. The republic’s larger cities include Almaty, the former capital; Qaraghandy (also spelled Karaganda); Shymkent (Chimkent); Semey; and Pavlodar. Astana, which became the capital in late 1997, is a relatively small city located in the north.

Ethnic Groups

Kazakhs do not constitute a majority of Kazakhstan’s population, but they do constitute a plurality: with 46 percent of the population, they are the single largest ethnic group. The next largest ethnic group in Kazakhstan is Russians, with 35 percent of the population. Russians are concentrated in the north and in large urban areas, whereas Kazakhs are the predominant ethnic group in rural areas. Other ethnic groups in Kazakhstan include Ukrainians, Germans, Uzbeks, Uygurs (Uighurs), Tatars, and Belarusians.

Kazakhstan was the only Soviet republic in which the titular nationality (or ethnic group for which a republic was named) constituted less than 50 percent of the population. Large numbers of Russians and Ukrainians settled in Kazakhstan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, after Central Asia became part of the Russian Empire. During World War II (1939-1945), the Soviet authorities deported Germans, Crimean Tatars, Koreans, and others to Kazakhstan from other parts of the Soviet Union. Another wave of large-scale immigration of Russians and other Slavs into Kazakhstan began in 1954 as part of a Soviet program to increase the amount of cultivated land in northern Kazakhstan. By 1959 Russians outnumbered Kazakhs in the republic. During the 1980s this demographic trend reversed. Birth rates were higher among Kazakhs, and the immigration of other ethnic groups abated. By 1989, when the last Soviet census was conducted, Kazakhs outnumbered Russians, although only by a slim margin. After Kazakhstan became an independent republic in 1991, the proportion of Kazakhs continued to increase because many Germans, Russians, and members of other ethnic groups left Kazakhstan, while a significant number of Kazakhs moved into the republic from the neighboring Central Asian states and from Mongolia.

Languages

The official language of Kazakhstan is Kazakh, which belongs to the Kipchak (or Western Turkic) branch of the Turkic languages. The Kazakh language developed originally in the Arabic script, but in 1928 the Soviet government mandated a switch to the Latin (or Roman) alphabet. Then in 1940 the Soviet authorities imposed a modified Cyrillic alphabet (the script of the Russian language). The Kazakh government is considering reverting back to the Latin script.

Russian is the most widely spoken language in Kazakhstan and the primary language of interethnic communication. Most Russians do not know the Kazakh language, while many Kazakhs have a working knowledge of Russian. During the Soviet period, Russian was the primary language of instruction in most schools, and knowledge of Russian was necessary to acquire skilled jobs. Beginning in the late 1980s it became more important for residents to learn and speak Kazakh. In 1989 the Supreme Soviet (legislature) of Kazakhstan adopted legislation making Kazakh the official language of the republic, and the constitution of 1993 ratified this designation. Government officials may use Russian for administrative purposes.

Religion

The Kazakhs are a Muslim people. Their first significant contact with Islam occurred in the 16th century, long after the Central Asian peoples to the south were introduced to the religion during the Arab conquests of the 8th century. Sufi ascetics, who wandered across western Asia during the 16th century, introduced the Kazakhs to Sufism, or Islamic mysticism. The personal focus of Sufism was compatible with the Kazakhs’ nomadic way of life. The Kazakhs adopted Islam gradually, with their conversion only becoming complete in the early 19th century.

During the Soviet period, the officially atheistic Communist regime sought to restrict the practice of Islam because of its potential for creating organized dissident movements. Most of Kazakhstan’s mosques were forcibly shut down in the 1920s. The regime briefly relaxed its antireligious stance during World War II but then reinstated restrictions. In the mid-1980s the Soviet government lifted most of these restrictions, and the number of practicing Muslims in Kazakhstan began to increase considerably. The revival of Islam in Kazakhstan intensified after independence in 1991.

Uzbeks and Tatars are also Muslims. Altogether, 43 percent of the population in the republic is Muslim. The Slavic peoples of Kazakhstan are traditionally Orthodox Christians, and the Russian Orthodox Church is the largest Christian denomination in the republic. The Christian community also includes small numbers of Protestants (mainly Lutherans) and Roman Catholics.

Education

Education is compulsory in Kazakhstan until age 17. Primary education begins at age 7, and secondary education begins at age 11 and lasts for a seven-year period. Primary and secondary schools provide education free of charge. Kazakhstan’s literacy rate is nearly 100 percent for ages 15 and older. Illiteracy was high before the Soviet period but was nearly eliminated under the Soviet system of free and universal education. State funding for schools has been reduced since the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Institutes of higher education in Kazakhstan include the Kazakh Al-Farabi State National University, located in Almaty, and the Qaraghandy State University, located in Qaraghandy. The republic also has numerous institutes that offer specialized courses of study in fields such as economics, civil engineering, and medicine.

Way of Life

Kazakhs were once an exclusively nomadic people who herded livestock on the vast steppes of northern Kazakhstan. This nomadic way of life continued until the late 1920s, when the Kazakhs were forced to settle. However, Kazakhs continue to identify with their nomadic ancestry. Today, some Kazakhs are seminomadic shabans (shepherds), working as employees of the state and of collective farms. For part of each year they reside in the steppes and mountain areas in portable, felt-covered dwellings called yurts, while they watch over their grazing herds. Kazakhs who reside in cities are more likely to demonstrate a mix of Kazakh and Russian cultural influences because of their interaction with the large urban Russian populations.

In Kazakhstan’s cities, residents eat both Russian and Kazakh dishes. In rural areas, the typical diet is similar to that of the early Kazakh nomads. The daily diet consists mainly of meat (especially mutton, beef, and qazy, or horse meat), served with rice or noodles, many types of milk products, and large loaves of unleavened bread. Smoked sausages made of qazy are a Kazakh specialty. Tea is served several times a day, while qymyz (fermented mare’s milk) and shabat (fermented camel’s milk) are prepared for special festivities.

Kazakhs wear both Western-style and traditional clothing. Men may wear a European suit with a Kazakh-style felt hat. Most villagers live in brick homes with electricity but without running water. While some city residents live in houses, most live in small apartments built during the Soviet period. Kazakhs enjoy many family-centered social activities, such as visiting relatives and attending family celebrations. Popular spectator sports include soccer, wrestling, and horse racing. Kazakhs also play traditional horseback games that are said to date from the 13th century. In one such game, called kokpar, two teams of players compete to drag a goat carcass into a goal.

Living standards have deteriorated for most people in Kazakhstan since the republic became independent in 1991. This deterioration is largely a result of economic reforms aimed at developing a free-market system. Crime (especially theft) and unemployment have risen considerably, and many people, especially the rural poor and the elderly, are finding it difficult to make ends meet. In 1995, for example, the prices of essential commodities rose sharply, while wages decreased. Rural populations attempting to offset falling incomes have increased cultivation of crops used to produce illegal drugs, such as opium poppies; the government has appealed to the United Nations (UN) to help combat this problem. Former Communist officials are the most privileged group in Kazakhstan. They form a small wealthy elite that has benefited from privatization (the transfer of enterprises from the public to the private sector). The country’s economic elite also includes entrepreneurs who import consumer goods on a large scale.

CULTURE

The cultural traditions that are distinctively Kazakh in orientation are grounded in the Kazakhs’ nomadic past. The culture of Kazakhstan also reflects strong Russian and Islamic influences. Due to settlement patterns, Russian culture is predominant in the cities.

A significant cultural development occurred during the Soviet period, when a government-mandated genre called socialist realism transformed art and literature into a form of Communist propaganda. Socialist realism directly contradicted Islamic tradition, which prohibits the representation of living things in art.

Art and Architecture

The nomadic way of life did not lend itself to the construction of architectural monuments, and thus Central Asia’s ancient cultural centers, full of architectural grandeur, were located south of Kazakh lands. Southern Kazakhstan, however, is home to a number of important Islamic buildings, including the Arystanbab Mosque (built in the 12th century), located near the ancient city of Otrar and the villages of Talapty and Kogam; the Khoja Akhmed Yasavi Mausoleum (14th century), in the city of TГјrkistan; and the Aishi-Bibi Mausoleum (10th century), in the city of Taraz. Many new mosques have been built since independence. In the new capital, Astana, buildings were constructed or renovated specifically for the government’s move there in 1997; these include a modern complex in the city’s main square that serves as the government headquarters. The cities of Kazakhstan also contain examples of Russian architecture, such as the Zenkov Cathedral (built in 1904) in Almaty. The architecture of the Soviet period mostly took the form of drab, functional buildings.

Traditional Kazakh folk arts continue to be produced as an expression of cultural identity. Kazakhs are known for their handmade textiles, especially colorful felt and wool carpets. The carpets were traditionally used to decorate the floors and walls of yurts, and they were considered a sign of wealth. Kazakhs also make embroidered clothes and silver jewelry.

Literature

Kazakhstan has a small body of national literature, most of it recent in origin. Until the 19th century, the oral epics of the traveling aqyns formed the Kazakhs’ main literary tradition. Abay Ibrahim Kunanbayev, a poet of the late 19th century, is widely regarded as the father of Kazakh literature. During the reformist period of the early 20th century, before the Soviet imposition of socialist realism, several Kazakh authors developed a modernist body of Kazakh writing. Aqmet Baytursunov, an author and newspaper editor, is credited with leading this literary advancement. For their activism in cultural politics, these authors were imprisoned in the 1930s during Soviet leader Joseph Stalin’s brutal purges, which targeted leading intellectuals among others (see Great Purge). The best-known Kazakh literary figure of the Soviet period was Mukhtar Auezov, a playwright and novelist.

Libraries and Museums

The largest library collections in Kazakhstan are held by the Scientific and Technical Library of Kazakhstan, the Central Library of the Kazakh Academy of Sciences, and the National Library of Kazakhstan, all in Almaty. Other large libraries are affiliated with the state universities in Almaty and Qaraghandy. Museums include the Central State Museum of Kazakhstan and the A. Kasteyev Kazakh State Art Museum, both located in Almaty.

ECONOMY

The economy of Kazakhstan is based on its extensive agricultural and mineral resources. The second largest of the former Soviet republics (after Russia), Kazakhstan’s vast steppes support wheat farms and livestock grazing. Abundant fossil-fuel and other mineral resources lie beneath the land. Heavy industry was developed to support the extraction of these mineral reserves, and it gives the country a relatively diversified economy. In 2001 the gross domestic product (GDP), which measures the value of goods and services produced in the country, was .4 billion. Agriculture produced 9 percent of GDP, industry (including mining and construction) accounted for 38.8 percent, and the remainder came from services such as trade and financial activities.

At the beginning of the 20th century the Kazakh economy was based primarily on nomadic agriculture. The country underwent a rapid transformation during the Soviet period. Large sections of the northern steppes were converted into state farms, and some industry was introduced. Soviet planning also tightly tied the region to Russia, replacing its historic connections with other central Asian republics. Most communication and transportation routes led through Russia, complicating Kazakhstan’s transition to an independent economy following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Adding to difficulties after independence was a shortage of knowledgeable administrators to direct the transition, as for many years economic decisions mostly had been made in Moscow.

The economy of Kazakhstan declined sharply following independence, as it did throughout the former Soviet Union. GDP declined by more than one-half as established trading relationships were broken. Compounding the fall was a drought that severely damaged agricultural output. Although Kazakhstan is one of the most modern republics in Central Asia, the process of economic reform started off very slowly. Mass privatization, which drew extensive global interest in the first year of independence, was suspended in early 1993 after achieving few results. Later that year, a second, more successful phase was introduced. Small enterprises were sold in cash auctions. Medium and large operations were sold by a voucher system, in which citizens were given coupons and allowed to invest in operations of their choosing. A select number of major operations were sold on a case-by-case basis, mostly to foreign companies. Kazakhstan’s new constitution, approved in August 1995, permits private land ownership but maintains government control over water and natural resources.

Agriculture

Before 1920 agriculture consisted primarily of herding livestock on the country’s expansive grass-covered plains. Wool, meat, milk, and other livestock products are still leading agricultural commodities, but the nomadic lifestyle of the herder has almost completely disappeared. During the Soviet period crop cultivation was greatly expanded, due in part to widespread mechanization and the construction of large-scale irrigation projects. Kazakhstan is a major producer of wheat, which is grown primarily in the north. Other crops include rice and cotton, which are grown on irrigated lands in the south.

Currency

In 1993 Kazakhstan issued its own currency, the tenge (146.74 tenge equal U.S.$1; 2001 average). The tenge is allowed to be freely exchanged with the currencies of other countries. The previous official currency, the Kazakh ruble, was a parallel currency to the Russian ruble and was printed in Russia.

Foreign Trade

In recent years, Kazakhstan has become more integrated into the world economy. Foreign investment has increased, especially in the oil and natural-gas sectors. In 1994 Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan established a free-trade zone between the two countries, and Kyrgyzstan soon joined the agreement. In the same year, Kazakhhstan signed a partnership accord that established economic contacts with the European Union (EU). In 1996, seeking closer economic integration with Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia, the country approved an agreement on a common market and customs union. In 2000 exports earned .1 billion and imports cost billion.

GOVERNMENT

In 1993 Kazakhstan promulgated its first post-Soviet constitution, which officially established Kazakhstan as an independent republic with a democratic system of government. In a referendum held in August 1995, voters approved a new constitution that provided for substantial changes in government. All citizens aged 18 and older may vote.

Executive

The president of Kazakhstan is head of state. Under amendments to the 1995 constitution, passed in 1998, the president is directly elected to a seven-year term. The president appoints a prime minister, with the approval of the legislature, to head the government. The president also officially confirms the prime minister’s recommended appointments to the Council of Ministers. The constitution gives extensive powers to the president, including the rights to rule by decree and to dissolve the legislature under certain conditions. The constitution also prohibits the president from being officially affiliated with a political party.

Legislature

Under the 1993 constitution, Kazakhstan had a unicameral (single-chamber) legislature of 177 members. The 1995 constitution reconfigured the legislature into two chambers, the Senate (upper house) and the Majlis (lower house), with a combined total of 114 members. Under the 1998 constitutional amendments, members of the lower house serve five-year terms, while members of the upper house serve six-year terms. Of the 47 members of the Senate, 40 are elected by regional assemblies (special electoral colleges comprised of members of local councils), and seven are appointed by the president. All 67 members of the Majlis are directly elected.

Judiciary

The highest court in Kazakhstan is the Supreme Court, whose members are nominated by the president and chosen by the Senate. Supreme Court judges are appointed for life. Under the 1995 constitution, the Constitutional Court that had been established in 1991 was replaced by the Constitutional Council. The council rules on all constitutional matters, but its decisions are subject to a presidential right of veto. The council is composed of seven members: three appointed by the president and four appointed by the legislature.

Local Government

For purposes of local government, Kazakhstan is divided into 16 administrative units, or 15 provinces (in Kazakh, oblystar) and Almaty City. These units are administered by councils (maslikhat) that are directly elected for four-year terms. The president of the republic appoints the heads of the councils. The councils implement national policies on the local level and coordinate these policies with the individual needs of their particular region. The president is empowered to cancel or suspend the acts of the councils—a system that makes local governments directly subordinate to the president.

Political Parties

Kazakhstan’s preeminent party is the Party of the People’s Unity of Kazakhstan (formerly the People’s Unity Party), which promotes centrist policies and opposes radical nationalism. Other major parties in Kazakhstan include the Republican Party-Azat, founded in 1992 by the merger of three nationalist opposition parties; Yedinstvo (Unity), a Russian nationalist group; the Socialist Party of Kazakhstan (SPK), founded in 1991; the Kazakhstan Peasants’ Union, an agrarian party; and the People’s Congress Party of Kazakhstan, a party that advocates civil peace. The Communist Party of Kazakhstan (CPK) was banned in 1991 but then granted legal status in March 1994; it is not a very important political force in Kazakhstan today. Smaller parties in Kazakhstan include Alash, a movement promoting radical Kazakh nationalism, and the Slavic Movement-Lad, an organization that represents Slavic communities.

Social Services

During the Soviet period, Kazakhstan’s social welfare system was funded by the Soviet central government. In the early 1990s the government of a newly independent Kazakhstan introduced pension, social insurance, and unemployment funds. The new government aimed to make its social welfare funds largely self-financing. The pension and social insurance funds do not receive state funding; instead they are financed entirely by employer and employee contributions. The state does finance the unemployment fund, which is intended to offset the increase in unemployment caused by economic reforms.

Kazakhstan’s health care system is limited in terms of facilities and coverage. Although hospitals exist in all of the country’s rural areas and are staffed by well-trained doctors, the quality of care is limited by a lack of technology and medicines. Any future expansion of health care in rural areas will be costly due to the large size of the country. The government has sought foreign investment in the health sector.

HISTORY

The region that is now Kazakhstan was settled by Turkic tribes beginning in about the 8th century ad. In the 13th century the area was incorporated into the Mongol empire of Genghis Khan. Upon Genghis Khan’s death in 1227, his empire was divided among his descendants. Most of present-day Kazakhstan became part of the territory ruled by his son Chagadai, but the western and most of the northern parts were included in the far-reaching empire of the Golden Horde established by Batu Khan, Genghis’ grandson.

By the end of the 15th century, the Kazakhs emerged as a distinctive group, created by the intermingling of Mongol and Turkic peoples. In the early 16th century the Kazakh tribes united to form a great nomadic empire under the warlord Kasim Khan. The Kazakhs soon became divided, however, with the tribes fighting among themselves. As a result of these internecine struggles, three major groupings emerged among the Kazakhs—the Great Horde (Ulu Zhuz) in the southeast portion of present-day Kazakhstan, the Middle Horde (Orta Zhuz) in the central steppe region, and the Little Horde (Kishi Zhuz) between the Aral Sea and the Ural River in the west. Each horde was composed of a number of tribes that were collectively ruled by a khan. The khan Haq Nazar succeeded in uniting the Kazakh hordes between 1538 and 1580, but by the 17th century the Kazakhs were again fragmented. In the 1680s the Kazakhs began to fight a series of wars against invaders from the east called Oirots, a group of four Mongol tribes, including Dzungars, that sought to conquer Kazakh lands. Although the Kazakh hordes united again for purposes of war, Dzungar invasions completely devastated the Kazakhs by 1720. This period is remembered in Kazakh history as the “Great Disaster.”